一,地籍
1. 地籍的定义
在《辞海》(1979年版本)中,地籍被称为"中国历代政府登记土地作为征收田赋根据的册簿".简单地讲,地籍是为征收土地税而建立的土地清册,这是地籍最古老,最基本的含义.随着社会和经济的发展,地籍不但为土地税收和土地产权保护服务,还要为土地利用规划和管理提供基础资料.在一些发达国家,地籍的应用领域扩大到30多个,我们把这种地籍称之为多用途地籍或现代地籍.很显然,多用途地籍的内涵和外延更加丰富.现代(多用途)地籍(以下简称地籍)是指由国家监管的,以土地权属为核心,以地块为基础的土地及其附着物的权属,位置,数量,质量和利用现状等土地基本信息的集合,用图,数,表等形式表示.其含义如下:
(1) 地籍是由国家建立和管理的.地籍自出现至今,都是国家为解决土地税收或保护土地产权的目的而建立的.尤其是以19世纪以来,其更明显地带有国家功利性.在国外,地籍测量称作官方测量.在我国解放以前的漫长历史中,历次地籍的建立都是由朝廷或政府下令进行的,其目的是为保证政府对土地的税收和保护土地产权.现阶段我国进行的地籍工作,其根本的目的是为了保护土地产权和合理利用土地.
(2) 土地权属是地籍的核心.地籍定义中强调了"以土地权属为核心",即地籍是以土地权属为核心对土地诸要素隶属关系的综合表述,这种表述毫无遗漏地针对国家的每一块土地及其附着物.不管是所有权还是使用权,是合法的还是违法的,是农村的还是城镇的,是企事业单位,机关,个人使用的还是国家和公众使用的(如道路,水域等),是正在利用的还是尚未利用的或不能利用的土地及其附着物,地籍都是以土地权属为核心进行记载的,都应有地籍档案.
(3) 以地块为基础建立地籍.一个区域的土地根据被占有,使用等原因被分割成边界明确,位置固定的许多块土地.地籍的内涵之一就是以地块为基础,准确地描述每一块土地的自然属性和社会经济属性.
(4) 地籍必须描述地块内附着物的状况.地面上的附着物是人类赖以生存的物质基础,是土地的重要组成部分.在城镇,土地的价值是通过附着在地面上的建筑物内所进行的各种生产活动来实现的,建筑物和构筑物是土地利用分类的重要标志."皮之不存,毛将焉附",土地和附着物是不可分离的,它们各自的权利和价值相互作用,相互影响.
历史上早期的地籍只对土地进行描述和记载,并未涉及地面上的建筑物,构筑物,但随着社会和经济的发展,尤其产生了房地产市场交易后,由于房,地所具有的内在联系,地籍必须对土地及附着物物进行综合描述.图1-1表达了土地,地块,附着物与地籍的关系.
(5) 地籍是土地基本信息的集合(简称土地清册).它包括土地调查册,土地登记册和土地统计册,用图,数,表的形式描述了土地及其附着物的权属,位置,数量,质量和利用状况.图,数,表之间通过特殊的标识符(关键字)相互连接,这个标识符就是通常所说的地块号(宗地号或地号).
"图"是指地籍图,即用图的形式直观地描述土地和附着物之间的相互位置关系,包括分幅地籍图,专题地籍图,宗地图等.
"数"是指地籍数据,即用数的形式描述土地及其附着物的位置,数量,质量,利用现状等要素,如面积册,界址点坐标册,房地产评价数据等.
"表"是指地籍表,即用表的形式对土地及其附着物的位置,法律状态,利用状况等进行文字描述,如地籍调查表,土地登记表和各种相关文件等.
在土地基本信息集合中回答了土地及其附着物的六个基本问题:
第一,"是谁的",具体指权属主与土地及其附着物之间的法律关系.
第二,"在哪里",具体指土地及其附着物的空间位置,一般用数据(坐标)和地籍编号进行描述.
第三,"有多少",具体指对土地及其附着物的量的描述,如土地面积,建筑面积,土地和房屋的价值或价格等.
第四,"在什么时候",具体指土地及其附着物的权利和利用的发生,转移,消灭等事件的时间.
第五,"为什么",具体指土地及其附着物的权利和利用的存在依据及其有关说明.
第六,"怎么样",具体指土地及其附着物的权利和利用的发生,转移,消灭等事件的过程说明或依据.
图1-1 土地,地块,附着物与地籍的关系图示
2.地籍的功能
建立地籍的目的,一般应由国家根据生产和建设的发展需要,以及科技发展的水平来确定.目前,包括我国在内的许多国家建立的地籍已广泛地用于土地税费征收,土地产权保护和土地利用规划编制,同时为政府制定土地制度,社会经济发展目标,环境保护政策等宏观决策提供基础资料和科学依据.概括起来,地籍有以下功能:
(1) 地理性功能.由于应用现代测量技术的缘故,在统一的坐标系内,地籍所包含的地籍图集和相关的几何数据,不但精确表达了一块地(包括附着物)的空间位置,而且还精确和完整地表达了全部地块之间在空间上的相互关系.地籍所具有的提供地块空间关系的能力称为地理性功能.这种功能是实现地籍多用途的基础.
(2) 经济功能.地籍最古老的目的就是用于土地税费的征收.利用地籍提供的土地及附着物的位置,面积,用途,等级和土地所有权,使用权状况,结合国家和地方的有关法律,法规,为以土地及其附着物为标的物的经济活动(如土地的有偿出让,转让,土地和房地产税费的征收,防止房地产市场的投机活动等)提供准确,可靠的基础资料.
(3) 产权保护功能.地籍调查和管理是国家政策支持下的依法行政行为,所形成的地籍信息具有空间性,法律性,精确性,现势性等特征,因而使地籍能为在以土地及其附着物为标的物的产权活动(如调处土地争执,恢复界址,确认地权,房地产的认定,买卖,租赁及其他形式的转让;解决房地产纠纷等)中提供法律性的证明材料,保护土地所有者和土地使用者的合法权益,避免土地产权纠纷.
(4) 土地利用管理功能.土地的数量,质量及其分布和变化规律是组织土地利用,编制土地利用规划的基础资料.利用地籍资料,能加快规划设计速度,降低费用,使规划容易实现.另外,地籍还能鉴别错误的规划,避免投资失误.
(5) 决策功能.这里所指的决策是指国家制定土地政策,方针,进行土地使用制度改革等方面的决策,也包括国家对经济发展,环境保护,人类生存等方面的决策以及个人或企业投资等方面的决策.地籍所提供的多要素,多层次,多时态的土地资源的自然状况和社会经济状况,是国家编制国民经济计划,制定各项规划的基本依据,是组织工农业生产和进行各项建设的基础.
(6) 管理功能.地籍是调整土地关系,合理组织土地利用的基本依据.土地使用状况及其经界位置的资料,是进行土地分配,再分配及征拨土地工作的重要依据.由于地籍存在地理性功能和决策功能,公安,消防,邮政,水土保持和以土地及其附着物为研究对象的科学研究和管理等部门可充分利用地籍资料为他们的工作服务.
3.地籍的类别
随着地籍使用范围的不断扩大,其内容也越加充实,类别的划分也更趋合理.地籍按其发展阶段,对象,目的和内容的不同,可以划分为不同的类别体系.
(1) 按地籍的用途划分,地籍可分为税收地籍,产权地籍和多用途地籍
在一定社会生产方式下,地籍具有特定的对象,目的,作用和内容,但它不是一成不变的.地籍发展过程,也是地籍用途不断扩张的过程.
税收地籍是指仅为税收服务的地籍,即专门为土地课税服务的土地清册.所以,税收地籍的主要内容是纳税人的姓名,地址和纳税人的土地面积以及土地等级等.建立税收地籍所需要的工作主要是测量地块面积和按土壤质量,土地的产出及收益等因素来评定土地等级.
产权地籍亦称法律地籍.随着经济的发展和社会结构的复杂化,土地交易日益频繁和公开化,因而促使地籍不但要用于税收,还要用于产权保护.产权地籍是国家为维护土地所有制度,鼓励土地交易,防止土地投机,保护土地买卖双方的权益而建立的土地清册.凡经登记的土地,其产权证明具有法律效力.产权地籍最重要的任务是保障土地所有者,使用者的合法权益和防止土地投机.为此,产权地籍必须以反映宗地的界线和界址点的精确位置以及准确的土地面积等为主要内容.
多用途地籍,亦称现代地籍,是税收地籍和产权地籍的进一步发展,其目的不仅是为课税或保护产权服务,更重要的是为土地利用,保护和科学管理土地提供基础资料.经济的快速发展和社会结构复杂化的加剧为地籍应用领域的扩张提供了动力,而科学技术的发展,则为地籍内容的深化和扩张提供了强有力的技术支撑,从而使地籍突破税收地籍和产权地籍的局限,具有多用途的功能,以此同时,建立,维护和管理地籍的手段也逐步被信息技术,现代测量技术和计算机技术所代替.
(2) 按地籍的特点和任务划分,地籍可分为初始地籍和日常地籍
所谓初始地籍是指在某一时期内,对其行政辖区内全部土地进行全面调查后,建立的新的土地清册(不是指历史上的第一本簿册).日常地籍是针对土地及其附着物的权属,位置,数量,质量和利用状况的变化,以初始地籍为基础进行修正,补充和更新的地籍.初始地籍和日常地籍是不可分割的完整体系.初始地籍是基础,日常地籍是对初始地籍的补充,修正和更新.如果只有初始地籍而没有日常地籍,地籍将逐步陈旧,变为历史资料,缺乏现势性,失去其使用价值.相反,如果没有初始地籍,日常地籍就没有依据和基础.
(3) 按城乡土地的不同特点划分,地籍可分为城镇地籍和农村地籍
城镇土地和农村土地具有不同的利用特点和权利特点.城镇地籍的对象是城镇的建城区的土地,以及独立于城镇以外的工矿企业,铁路,交通等用地.农村地籍的对象是城镇郊区及农村集体所有土地,国营农场使用的国有土地和农村居民点用地等.由于城镇土地利用率,集约化程度高,建(构)筑物密集,土地价值高,位置和交通条件所形成的级差收益十分悬殊,城镇地籍的图,数通常具有大尺度和高精度的特征,而农村地籍则相反.在地籍的内容,土地权属处理,地籍的技术和方法及其成果整理,编制等方面,城镇地籍比农村地籍有更高,更复杂的要求.在实践中,由于农村居民地(村镇)与城镇有许多相同的地方,农村地籍的居民地部分可以按城镇地籍的相近要求建立,并统称为城镇村庄地籍.随着技术的进步和社会经济的发展,将逐步建立城乡一体化地籍.
二,地籍测量
1. 地籍测量的定义
地籍测量是为获取和表达地籍信息所进行的测绘工作.其基本内容是测定土地及其附着物的权属,位置,数量,质量和利用状况等.具体内容如下:
(1) 地籍控制测量,测量地籍基本控制点和地籍图根控制点;
(2) 界线测量,测定行政区划界线和土地权属界线的界址点坐标;
(3) 地籍图测绘,测绘分幅地籍图,土地利用现状图,房产图,宗地图等;
(4) 面积测算,测算地块和宗地的面积,进行面积的平差和统计;
(5) 进行土地信息的动态监测,进行地籍变更测量,包括地籍图的修测,重测和地籍簿册的修编,以保证地籍成果资料的现势性与正确性;
(6) 根据土地整理,开发与规划的要求,进行有关的地籍测量工作.
同其他测量工作一样,地籍测量也遵循一般的测量原则,即先控制后碎部,由高级到低级,从整体到局部的原则.
2. 地籍测量的特征
地籍测量与基础测绘和专业测量有着明显不同,其本质的不同表现在凡涉及土地及其附着物的权利的测量都可视为地籍测量,具体表现如下:
(1) 地籍测量是一项基础性的具有政府行为的测绘工作,是政府行使土地行政管理职能的具有法律意义的行政性技术行为.在国外,地籍测量被称作为官方测绘.在我国,历次地籍测量都是由朝廷或政府下令进行的.
(2) 地籍测量为土地管理提供了精确,可靠的地理参考系统.由地籍的历史和地籍测量的历史可知,测绘技术一直是地籍技术的基础技术之一,地籍测量技术不但为土地的税收和产权保护提供精确,可靠并能被法律事实接受的数据,而且借助现代先进的测绘技术为地籍提供了一个大众都能接受的具有法律意义的地理参考系统.
(3) 地籍测量具有勘验取证的法律特征.无论是产权的初始登记,还是变更登记或他项权利登记,在对土地权利的审查,确认,处分过程中,地籍测量所做的工作就是利用测量技术手段对权属主提出的权利申请进行现场的勘查,验证,为土地权利的法律认定提供准确,可靠的物权证明材料.
(4) 地籍测量的技术标准必须符合土地法律的要求.地籍测量的技术标准既要符合测量的观点,又要反映了土地法律的要求,它不仅表达人与地物,地貌的关系和地物与地貌之间的联系,而且同时反映和调节着人与人,人与社会之间的以土地产权和利用为核心的各种关系.
(5) 地籍测量工作有非常强的现势性.由于社会发展和经济活动使土地的利用和权利经常发生变化,而土地管理要求地籍资料有非常强的现势性,因此必须对地籍测量成果进行适时更新,所以地籍测量工作比一般基础测绘工作更具有经常性的一面,且不可能人为地固定更新周期,只能及时,准确地反映实际变化情况.地籍测量始终贯穿于建立,变更,终止土地利用和权利关系的动态变化之中,并且是维持地籍资料现势性的主要技术之一.
(6) 地籍测量技术和方法是对当今测绘技术和方法的应用集成.地籍测量技术是普通测量,数字测量,摄影测量与遥感,面积测算,误差理论和平差,大地测量,空间定位技术等技术的集成式应用.根据土地管理和房地产管理对图形,数据和表册的综合要求组合不同的测绘技术和方法.
(7) 从事地籍测量的技术人员应有丰富的土地管理知识.从事地籍测量的技术人员,不但具备丰富的测绘知识,还应具有不动产法律知识和地籍管理方面的知识.地籍测量工作从组织到实施都非常严密,它要求测绘技术人员与地籍调查人员密切配合,细致认真地作业.
三,地籍调查
在进行地籍测量之前,必须进行地籍调查,即调查土地及其附着物的社会,经济和法律方面的信息,在实地确认土地及其附着物的权属界址和利用状况,并填写地籍调查表,为土地及其附着物的精确定位,面积测算等地籍测量工作提供基础资料.
(一) 地籍调查的含义
地籍调查是遵照国家的法律规定,对土地及其附着物的权属,数量,质量和利用现状等基本情况进行的调查.它既是一项政策性,法律性和社会性很强的基础工作,又是一项集科学性,实践性,统一性,严密性于一体的技术工作.
根据调查时间及任务的不同,地籍调查可分为初始地籍调查和变更地籍调查.初始地籍调查是指对调查区范围内全部土地在初始土地登记之前进行的地籍调查.初始地籍调查一般要在无地籍资料或地籍资料比较散乱,严重缺乏,陈旧的状况下进行的调查工作,但不是指历史上的第一次地籍调查.这项工作涉及司法,税务,财政,规划,房产等方面,规模大,范围广,内容繁杂,费用巨大.变更地籍调查是指为了保持地籍的现势性和及时掌握地籍信息的动态变化而进行的经常性的地籍调查,是在初始地籍的基础上进行的,是地籍管理的经常性工作.
按调查区域的功能不同,地籍调查可分为农村地籍调查和城镇地籍调查.目前农村地籍调查主要有土地利用现状调查,土地质量调查,土地权属调查等.《土地利用现状调查规程》规定了境界(各级行政区划界线)和土地权属界(村,农,林,牧,渔场界,居民地以外的企事业单位的土地所有权和使用权界)的调查内容,方法.城镇地籍调查是指城镇及村庄内部的地籍调查,主要对城镇,村庄范围内部土地的权属,位置,数量,质量和利用状况等进行调查.合理利用城镇土地,对城镇和国家经济的发展起着重要作用.自1985年以来,为加强城镇的土地管理,配合国家开征城镇国有土地使用费(税),根据《城镇地籍调查规程》,全国各省,自治区,直辖市的城镇积极进行初始地籍调查.农村地籍调查和城镇地籍调查要互相衔接,既不能重复又不能遗漏.在地籍调查时,调查的内容应覆盖调查区域的每一块土地,其中土地权属调查和房地产的权属调查是核心.
(二) 地籍调查的目的
随着人口的增加和经济的发展,各方面对土地的需求与日俱增.但土地的面积是有限的,位置是固定的,自然供给缺乏弹性,珍惜并合理利用每一寸土地是土地管理的根本目的.为了搞好土地管理,必须掌握土地的基本信息:一是土地的权属状况及其空间分布;二是土地的数量及其在国民经济各部门,各土地权属间的分布状况;三是土地的质量及使用状况.因此必须根据科学的地籍制度,全面进行地籍调查,搜集上述基本信息.其根本目的为维护土地制度,保护土地产权,制定土地政策和合理利用土地等提供基础资料.
(三) 地籍调查的内容
由于建立地籍的目的以及地籍制度不同,地籍调查的内容也不同.
1. 税收地籍调查的内容
以财政目的为主的税收地籍调查,对土地只需调查以下两个问题:一是土地权利状况,即纳税人情况,包括姓名或单位名称,地址等;二是计算赋税的依据,即需要纳税的土地类型,土地面积和土地等级等.
2. 产权地籍调查的内容
以产权保护为目的的产权地籍,除了为税收服务之外,还要保护土地所有者和使用者的合法权益,为国家对土地的管理和监督提供证明材料.因此,产权地籍调查是以土地权属调查为核心内容,同时调查土地利用状况和其他要素.
3. 多用途地籍调查的内容
与产权地籍相比,多用途地籍的内容更加丰富.其具体内容如下:
(1) 土地及其附着物的权属,包括权利人状况,权源,权利性质,权利限制等;
(2) 土地及其附着物的位置,包括地理位置,权属界址等;
(3) 土地及其附着物的数量,包括土地面积,建筑占地面积,总建筑面积建筑等.
(4) 土地及其附着物的质量,包括土地等级,基准地价,建筑物的结构和层数,各种房地产价格等.
(5) 土地及其附着物的利用状况,包括土地类型,容积率,建筑密度,建筑间距,各类别面积比例.
另外,一般附有高程,地形等图示资料.
(四) 地籍调查的原则
为了保证地籍管理工作顺利开展,避免不应有的矛盾,地籍调查应遵循以下原则:
(1) 符合国家土地,房地产和城市规划等有关法律的原则.
(2) 实事求是的原则.调查时,在依法与现状结合的前提下,充分考虑历史背景.
(3) 符合地籍管理的原则.以科学的地籍制度为基础,保证地籍的现势性与系统性,可靠性与精确性,概括性与完整性.
(4) 符合多用途的原则.
——以地块(宗地)为单位进行地籍调查;
——调查前应收集有关测绘,地政,房地产产权产籍,规划,建筑物报建等资料;
——应采用空间上全覆盖的调查方法,调查区域的每一块土地,每一个宗地的情况都要调查清楚,包括道路,桥梁,河流,水面,山地,农田等;
——地籍调查结果要做到图形,数据,簿册之间具有清晰的一一对应关系.
(五) 地籍调查的工作程序
1. 地籍调查的工作内容
初始地籍调查有比较系统的技术体系,相对而言是静态的.日常地籍调查的主要技术方法与初始地籍调查的技术方法是一致的,但比较零散,主要来自于日常地籍工作及国土管理的日常业务,如产权变更登记,地政,征地,土地监察等,是动态的.
不管是初始的还是日常的,地籍调查的工作内容都包括土地权属调查,土地利用现状调查,土地等级调查,房产调查等.
2. 地籍调查工作程序
地籍调查是一项综合性的系统工程,政策性,法律性和技术性都很强,工作量大,难度高,必须在充分准备,周密计划,精心组织的基础上进行.
(1) 准备工作.包括制定地籍调查的组织方案和技术方案,组织准备,宣传,调查试点及技术培训,表册,仪器,工具准备,收集资料等工作.
(2) 外业调查,勘测.对土地的位置,界址,用途等进行实地调查,勘丈.
(3) 内业工作.在外业工作基础上,整理地籍调查资料等.
(4) 检查验收.检查验收实行作业人员自检,作业组互检,作业队专检,上级主管部门验收的多级检查验收制度.
第二节 地籍和地籍测量的历史
一,地籍发展综述
地籍是使用与管理土地的产物,其产生和发展也是社会进步,生产发展,科学技术水平不断提高的结果.国家的出现是地籍产生的基本原因.在原始社会中,土地处于"予取予求"的状态,人们共同劳动,按氏族内部的规则分享劳动产品,无需了解土地状况和人地关系.随着社会生产力的发展,出现了凌驾于劳动群众之上的机器——国家.这时,地籍作为维护这个国家机器运作的工具出现了.它在维护土地制度,保障国家税收方面发挥了重要作用.
在西方,单词"地籍"的来源并不确定,可能来源于希腊字"Katatikon"(教科书或商业书籍中),也可能来源于后来的拉丁字"Capitastrum"(纳税登记).具有现代地籍含义的土地记录据悉已存在了数千年.已知最古老的土地记录是一个公元前4000年的Chaladie表.中国,古埃及,古希腊,古罗马等文明古国都存在着一些古老的地籍记录.在当时的社会背景下,地籍是一种以土地为对象的征税簿册,记载的是有关土地的权属,面积和土地的等级等.在这种征税簿册中,只涉及土地所有者或使用者本人,不涉及四至关系,无建筑物的基本记载.所采用的测量技术也很简单,无图形.土地质量的评价主要依据是农作物的产量.运用征税簿册所征收到的税费,主要作为维持社会发展的基金,它是国家工业化之前的最主要的收入来源之一.这也就是我们所说的税收地籍.
直至18世纪,社会结构发生了深刻变革,土地的利用更加多元化,出现了农业,工业,居民地等用地类型.而测量技术的发展,使具有确定权属主的地块能精确地定位,计算的面积也更加准确,并且可以用图形来描述地籍的内容.换句话说,测量技术为地籍提供了准确的地理参考系统,最终导致了征收的税费基于被分割的地块(包括建筑物)应纳税金,并逐渐地建立了一个较成熟的税收体系.这时地籍的内容不但有土地的权属,位置,数量和利用类别,还包含其附着物(即建筑物和构筑物)的权属,位置,数量和利用类别.
19世纪,欧洲的经济结构发生了重大变化变化,出现了城市中心地皮紧张和土地生意兴隆状况,产生了在法律上更好地保护土地的所有权和使用权的要求.地籍作为征收土地税费的基础,由于它能提供一个完整精确的地理参考系统(这是由精确的测量系统所带来的),因而担当起以产权登记册来实现产权的保护任务,地籍也因此变成了产权保护的工具,从此产生了含义明确的产权地籍(税收是其目的之一).据有关文件记载,在拿破仑时代,就是因为地籍的建立,所以减少了关于地产所有权和使用权的边界纠纷.
基于以上原因,西方各国建立起了覆盖整个国家范围的国家地籍,对地籍事业的发展起到决定性的作用.进入20世纪,由于人口增长及工业化等因素,社会结构变得更加复杂,各级政府和部门需要越来越多的信息来管理这个激烈变迁的社会,同时认识到地籍是其管理工作中的重要信息来源.
在技术方面,土地质量评价的理论,技术和方法日趋完善,土地的质量评估资料被纳入地籍中.科学技术的发展,为测量技术提供了一个更加精确,可靠的手段,地籍图的几何精度和地籍的边界数据精度越来越高.地籍薄册登记的有关不动产性质,大小,位置等有关资料也越来越丰富.地籍在满足土地税收和产权保护的同时,其内涵又进一步丰富.为国家利益和大众利益而进行的各类道路规划设计以及政府决策越来越依赖已有的地籍资料.地籍资料不断地应用于各类规划设计,房地产经营管理,土地整理,土地开发,法律保护,财产税收等许多方面,使地籍的内容更加丰富,从而扩展了地籍的传统任务和目的,形成了我们所说的多用途地籍,在现在的各类书籍中也称之为现代地籍.
二,地籍测量发展综述
测绘技术产生之初的主要应用之一就是解决土地的划分和测算田亩的面积.约在公元前30世纪,古埃及及皇家登记的税收记录中,有一部分是以土地测量为基础的,在一些古墓中也发现了土地测量者正在工作的图画.公元前21世纪尼罗河洪水泛滥时就曾以测绳为工具用测量方法测定和恢复田界.据《中国历代经界纪要》记载:"中国经界,权舆禹贡".从商周时代实行井田制开始了对田地界域进行了划分和丈量.从出土的商代甲骨文中可以看出耕地被划分呈"井"字形的田块,此时已用"规","矩","弓"等测量工具进行土地测量,已有了地籍测量技术和方法的雏形.
公元11世纪前,不管土地管理制度如何改变或不同,地籍测量的简单技术,方法和工具都是量测土地经界和面积的有力手段.
1086年,一个著名的土地记录——汤姆斯代(The Doomsday Book)在英格兰创立,完成了大体覆盖整个英格兰的地籍测量,遗憾的是这个记录没有标在图上.
1387年,中国明代开展地籍测量,编制鱼鳞图册,以田地为主,绘有田块图形,分号祥列面积,地形,土质以及业主姓名,作为征收田赋的依据.到1393年完成全国地籍测量并进行土地登记,全国田地总计为8 507 523顷.
1628年,瑞典为了税收目的,对土地进行了测量和评价,包括英亩数和生产能力并绘制成图.
1807年,法国为征收土地税而建立地籍,开展了地籍测量;1808年,拿破仑一世颁布全国土地法令.这项工作最引人注目的是布设了三角控制网作为地籍测量的基础,并采用了统一的地图投影,在1:2500或1:1250比例尺的地籍图上定出每一街坊中地块的编号,这样在这个国家中所有的土地都做到了惟一划分.这时的法国已建立了一套较完整的地籍测量理论,技术和方法.现在许多国家仍在沿用拿破仑时代的地籍测量思想及其所形成的理论和技术.
19世纪和20世纪中叶以前是地籍测量理论和技术不断发展完善的阶段.20世纪以来,由于社会的不断变革和发展,人口的急剧增长和建设事业的迅猛发展,迫切要求及时解决土地资源的有效利用和保护等问题,由此对地籍测量提出了更高的要求,各国政府对此项工作也普遍重视.而计算机技术,光电测距,航空摄影测量与遥感技术,GPS定位技术以及卫星监测技术的迅速发展,也使得地籍测量理论和技术得到不断发展,可对社会发展过程中出现的各种问题做出及时的解决.现在,发达国家都陆续开展了由政府监管的以地块为基础的地籍或土地信息系统的建立工作.
三,我国地籍与地籍测量的发展
我国是一个文明古国,地籍,地籍测量和地籍管理工作在我国有悠久的历史.在农业生产中,为解决分田和赋税问题,不但要进行土地测量,而且建立了一种以土地为对象的征税簿册.
颜师古对《汉书·武帝纪》中"籍吏氏马,补车骑马"的"籍"注为"籍者,总入籍录而取之".地籍概念的雏形始于我国的夏朝,即公元前21～16世纪.
商,周时代,建立了一种"九一而助"的土地管理制度,即"八家皆私百亩,同养公亩"的井田制,并相应地进行了简单的土地测绘工作,这可视作我国地籍测量的雏形.据《汉书·食货志》中记述"六尺为步,百步为亩,亩百为夫,夫三为屋,屋三为井,井方一里,是为九夫;八家共之,各受私田百亩,公田十亩,是为八百八十亩,余二十亩以为庐舍."它较详细地描述了当时的土地管理制度以及量测经界位置和面积的方法.
到了春秋中叶以后(约公元前770～476年),鲁,楚,郑三国先后进行了田赋和土地调查工作.例如在公元前548年,楚国先根据土地的性质,地势,位置,用途等划分地类,再拟定每类土地所应提供的兵,车,马,甲盾的数量,最后将土地调查结果作系统记录,制成簿册.
地籍的历史发展与社会生产关系的变化密切相关.随着社会生产力的发展,社会生产关系处于不断变化之中,相应地,地籍的内容也会发生变化,孟子曾说:"夫仁政必自经界始,经界不正,井地不均,谷禄不平;是故暴君污吏,必漫其经界.经界既正,分田制禄,可坐而定也."在这里,正经界是地籍工作的重要内容,所以地籍在生产关系调节中占有重要地位.公元前216年,《册府元龟》记载:"始皇帝三十一年,使黔首自实田",即令人民自己申报田产面积进行登记.
如何建立与土地私有制相适应的地籍制度成了历代封建王朝工作的重点.唐德宋建中年间,杨炎推行"两税法",并进行大规模的土地调查,郑樵《通志》记载:"至建中初,分遣黜陟使,按此垦田田数,都得百十余万顷."
宋代对地籍管理极为重视,推行的一些整理地籍的办法对后代产生了深远的影响,其经界法地籍整理已具有产权保护的功能.宋代创立了三种地籍测量方法,即方田法,经界法,推排法.
宋代虽然创立了许多地籍管理的办法,但是未完成全国范围的土地清丈,真正完成全国土地清丈,并建立起完善的地籍制度则是在明代.在总结宋代经界法经验的基础上,明代创立了鱼鳞图册(见图1-2)制度,而且还同时进行人口普查,将其结果编为黄册,黄册和鱼鳞图册是相互补充的.陆仪的《论鱼鳞图册》记有:"一曰黄册,以人户为母,以田为子,凡定谣役,征赋税用之.一曰鱼鳞图册,以田为本,以人户为子,凡分号数,稽四至,则用之."这时,地籍完全从户籍中独立出来,这是我国地籍制度发展变化的重要里程碑.此后,与封建土地私有制相适应的地籍制度终于形成.
民国初期至解放初期,开始进入产权地籍.它不仅具有传统的税收功能,而且具有了产权的功能,并为政府的土地管理服务.
1914年,国民政府中央设立经界局,其下成立经界委员会,并设测量队,制定了《经界法规草案》.1922年,国民政府为开展土地测量,聘请德国土地测量专家单维康为顾问.1927年,上海开始进行土地测量,这是我国用现代技术方法进行的最早的地籍测量.1928年,国民政府在南京设立内政部,下设土地司,主管全国土地测量.1929年南京政府决定陆军测量总局改为参谋部陆地测量总局,兼有土地测量任务.同年,内政部公布《修正土地测量应用尺度章程》.1931年,陆地测量总局会同各有关部门召开了全国经纬度测量及全国统一测量会议,制定了10年完成全国军用图,地籍图的计划,确定用海福特椭圆体,兰勃特投影,改定新图廓.1932年,陆地测量总局航测队应江西要求,首次在江西省施测了地籍图.以后,还做过无锡及苏北几个县的土地测量.20世纪30～40年代,国民政府为"完成地价税收政策之准备工作,并进而开征地价税;推行保障佃农,扶植自耕农,以促进农业生产的目的,调整地政机构,训练地政人员,制造测量仪器,以举办各省,县市地籍整理,进行清理地籍,确定地权,规定地价."1942年,各省地政局下设地籍测量队,还设立了测量仪器制造厂.1944年地政署公布了《地籍测量规则》,这是我国第一部完整的国家地籍测量法规,也标志着我国地籍测量发展进入了一个新的阶段.确切地说,我国的现代地籍始于这个时期.
图 1-2 鱼鳞图
由于历史的原因,至20世纪80年代中期,我国才正式开展地籍测量工作.为适应我国经济发展和改革开放的形势,国家于1986年成立国家土地管理局,并颁布了《中华人民共和国土地管理法》.至此,地籍测量成为我国土地管理工作的重要组成部分.国家相继制定了《土地利用现状调整调查规程》,《城镇地籍调查规程》,《地籍测量规范》,《房产测量规范》等技术规则,开展了大规模的土地利用调查,城镇地籍调查,房产调查和行政勘界工作,同时进行土地利用监测,我们已经比较详细地摸清了土地的家底,理顺了土地权属关系,解决了大量的边界纠纷,达到了和睦邻里关系和稳定了社会秩序的目的.武汉大学等院校相继开设了相关学科专业和课程,培养了大量地籍测量方面的人才并对地籍测量理论和技术进行了大量的研究工作,GPS定位理论和技术已在我国城镇地籍测量和省,市,县勘界工作中得到全面应用.卫星资源遥感用于土地利用监测的技术和理论十几年来一直在发展和完善之中.为治理环境和提高土地生产力,全国各地做了大量的土地整理测量工作.
第三节 地籍测量学
测绘学属自然科学范畴的学科,是为人们了解和改造自然服务的,它研究的对象是地球表面,研究的主要内容是确定地球的形状,大小和地表面的形态,并将地表面的地形及其他信息测绘成图.由于人类社会的需求,近代科学技术的日益发展,测绘科学也得到了相应的发展.测绘对象已由地球表面扩展到空间,由静态发展到动态,形成了许多单独的并有了明确分工的分支学科.这些学科注意的是地球表面的自然属性和一般的社会属性,如地形,地貌,地理名称,构筑物和建筑物的投影位置等,它着重研究获取和表达点的三维空间的理论和技术,对于土地在利用过程中所形成的地块的法律意义,经济价值以及各地块之间的相互法律关系,社会关系和经济价值关系却无明确的描述和研究,而地块的这些特征的存在却比测绘技术的产生更加古老.测绘技术产生之初的主要应用之一就是保证各土地所用者和土地使用者的地块边界清晰,产权明确,核算地块面积并予赋税,在此所进行的测量工作可称为地籍测量(或称土地测量).另外,为提高土地生产力而进行的土地整理的测量工作,为适应城市化发展占用农业用地来扩大生产建设用地而进行的测量工作,为实施土地利用规划和城市规划目标而进行的测量工作,还有房产测量,土地利用动态监测等测量工作都可视为地籍测量学科的范畴.
地籍测量学是以现代测绘科学技术为基础,立足于土地权利和土地利用的空间特征,以土地的管理,经济及其法律为支撑来研究土地信息的采集,处理和表达的工程技术学科.地籍测量在精确确定地球表面地块与地块之间的空间位置关系的同时,需准确表达人与地之间的各种关系.人与地的关系正是土地科学研究的核心,因此,地籍测量学科是测绘科学与土地科学结合的产物,也是社会发展所需求的科学技术.
地籍测量学的主要任务是确定地块的位置,面积,保持土地利用过程中所发生的地块的分割,合并,产权转移和利用类别变化的现势性和准确性.地籍测量学研究的对象是土地的空间位置及其形状和大小,具体指地块的空间位置及其形状和大小.地块是人们在土地利用过程中所形成的,并具有法律,经济和社会关系的特征.在现代土地资源管理工作中,地块是土地基本信息的最小载体.在土地管理工作中,以土地权利为主题标识的地块称宗地,它是同一土地权利相连成片的用地范围,是地块的最重要的形态之一.
国际测量工作者联合会(FIG)设有地籍测量的专业委员会,专门研究土地信息系统问题(LIS)和地籍测量的特殊问题.其目标和职责之一,就是组织交流地籍测量的现状与发展,面向的是世界范围内的土地与人口,人口与环境等问题及由此引起的社会发展问题,这也是在全球范围内确立的地籍测量学科在经济建设和社会发展中的重要作用.
地籍测量学研究的内容包括地籍测量的理论框架,地籍测绘技术体系及其标准化,土地的划分技术与方法,土地信息采集与表达的技术集成及其可视化,土地利用的动态监测技术与方法,高新测绘技术(3S)在土地管理中的应用等.
在全球范围以内,地籍测量学的发展趋势将从以下几个方面得到体现:一是对传统的土地测量理论,技术和方法进一步地拓宽思路,使其理论更加丰富和完善,技术和方法更加规范化,土地空间信息获取将在快速和内外业一体化方面取得突破;二是建立土地信息系统,并不断地改善数据质量,使土地工作更加合理和高效;三是高新测绘技术将是地籍测量学科的重要组成部分,也是快速,高质量地获取土地空间信息的技术手段之一.依托GPS技术,建立一个全国统一的土地测量参考系统,为土地信息大范围的交流及相关土地管理工作的快速实现打下基础.依托卫星资源遥感监测技术,将会经济地,快速地监测土地利用的变化,再结合常规的地面土地利用监测手段,为国家的各项决策快速提供土地利用变化的资料.
 

1, cadastral
1. The definition of cadastral
In the "Ci Hai" (1979 version), the cadastre has been called the "Chinese governments impose land tax registration of land as a book based on the book." Simply put, cadastral land acquisition tax for the establishment of the land inventory, which is the cadastral the oldest and most basic meaning. with social and economic development, not only for the land tax cadastre and land property rights protection services, but also for land-use planning and management of basic information. In some developed countries, cadastral applications extend to more than 30, we call such a multi-purpose cadastral cadastral cadastral or modern. It is clear that multi-purpose cadastre enrich the connotation and extension. modern (multipurpose) cadastre (hereinafter referred to as the cadastral) is regulated by the state, of land ownership as the core, land-based ownership of the land and its attachments, location, quantity, quality and utilization of a collection of basic information such as land-use maps, the number of tables and other forms, said. its meaning is as follows :
(1) The cadastre is established and managed by the State. Cadastre has since emerged, all countries in resolving the land tax or the purpose of protection of land ownership established. In particular, based on 19th century, its more obvious utilitarian Strip countries. In other countries, the official measurement known as Cadastral Survey. in our country long before the liberation history, the previous establishment of cadastre are ordered by a court or government, and its purpose is to ensure that government taxes on land and the protection of land property rights. at this stage cadastral work of our country and its fundamental purpose is to protect the land property rights and rational use of land.
(2) Land ownership is a cadastral core. Cadastral definition emphasized the "land ownership as the core", that is, the land cadastre is based on land ownership as the core elements of the integrated presentation affiliation, such statements without any omission targeting countries, each piece of land and its attachments. regardless of ownership or right to use, is legal or illegal, in rural areas or towns, is enterprises, institutions, or the personal use of national and public use (and such as roads, water, etc.) is being used or have yet to use or not use the land and its attachments, cadastral land ownership are recorded as the core conduct, and should have the cadastral files.
(3) the establishment of land-based cadastre. An area of land being appropriated according to the use of other reasons divided into clearly defined by boundaries, location, a fixed number of pieces of land. One of the cadastre of the content is to block, based on an accurate description of Every piece of land's natural attributes and socio-economic attributes.
(4) must describe the land in the cadastral attachments situation. Attachments on the ground is the material basis of human survival, is an important part of the land. In urban areas, the land value is attached to the ground by the building material within the various production activities carried out to achieve, the buildings and structures are an important indicator of land use classification. "Without the skin, the hair adhere to," Land and attachments can not be separated, and their respective rights and value of the interaction, affect each other.
The early history of cadastral land only to describe and record, did not involve ground buildings, structures, but with the social and economic development, in particular, had the real estate market transactions, due to room, to the inherent Contact, cadastral land and attachments must be a comprehensive description of objects. Figure 1-1 Expression of land, land, fixtures and cadastral relations.
(5) The land cadastre is a collection of basic information (the cadastre). It includes the land survey books, land registers and land statistics books, with maps, the number of the form table describes the ownership of the land and its attachments, location , quantity, quality and utilization. chart, number, between the tables through a special identifier (keywords) mutual connection, this identifier is known as block number (number to number or lot number).
"Map" refers to the cadastral map, that is, with the diagram in the form of an intuitive description of the land and the attachments between the position of relations, including framing cadastral maps, thematic cadastral maps, were maps.
"Several" refers to the cadastral data, that is, to use a few attachments in the form of description of the land and its location, quantity, quality, utilization status and other factors, such as the area of books, Boundary point coordinates volumes, and real estate assessment data.
"Table" refers to the cadastral sheet, that is, to use the table in the form of attachments to the land and its location, legal status, condition, etc. for the use of textual descriptions, such as the cadastral survey, land registration forms and all relevant documents.
Collection of basic information in the land of the land and its attachments to answer six basic questions:
First, the "Who," and specifically refers to ownership of land and its owners and the legal relations between attachments.
Second, the "where", specifically refers to the spatial location of the land and its attachments are generally available data (coordinates) and cadastral numbers to describe it.
Third, the "many", specifically refers to the amount of land and its attachments to the description, such as land area, building area, land and housing value or price.
Fourth, the "what time", specifically refers to the rights of the land and its attachments and the use of the occurrence, transfer, eliminate incidents of time.
Fifth, the "why", specifically refers to the rights of the land and its attachments and the use of the existence of basis and the related notes.
Sixth, the "how" specifically refers to the rights of the land and its attachments and the use of the occurrence, transfer, eliminate the process of events such as instructions or basis.
Figure 1-1 land, land, fixtures and the relationship between cadastral icon
2. Cadastral feature
The purpose of the establishment of cadastral, the general production and construction by the State under the development needs, as well as to determine the level of scientific and technological development. At present, many countries including my own establishment of cadastral land has been widely used in the collection of taxes, land property rights protection and land-use planning prepared for the Government to formulate land system at the same time, socio-economic development goals, environmental policy and other macro-level decisions provide the basis for information and scientific basis. To sum up, the cadastre has the following functions:
(1) The geographic features. As the application of modern measuring technology's sake, in a unified coordinate system, cadastral atlas contains cadastral and relevant geometric data, not only accurate expression of a piece of land (including attachments) and spatial location, but also accurate and complete expression of all the land between the spatial correlation. cadastral possess the ability to provide land known as the spatial relationship to rational functions. It's function is to achieve multi-purpose cadastre base.
(2) The economic function. Cadastre of the oldest purpose is for land tax collection. The use of cadastral land and attachments to provide the location, size, purpose, grade and land ownership, tenure status, combined with the relevant national and local laws and regulations, for the land and its fixtures for the subject matter of economic activities (such as land paid to sell, transfer, land and real estate taxes levied against real estate speculation in the market, etc.) to provide accurate and reliable basis for information.
(3) property rights protection. Cadastral survey and management of national policy supported by administrative acts by law, the formation of a spatial cadastral information, legal, accuracy, etc. are potential features, thereby be able to in the cadastre of land and their attachments to the subject matter of property rights activities (such as the mediation of land disputes, recovery boundary, confirm land ownership, real estate, identification, trading, leasing and other forms of transfer; to resolve property disputes, etc.) to provide legal proof of material , protection of land owners and land users legal rights and interests and avoid land ownership disputes.
(4) land-use management features. The land of the quantity, quality and its distribution and variation is the organization of land use, land-use planning basis for the preparation of the information. The use of cadastral information, can speed up the planning and design speed, reduce costs, to make the planning easy to implement. In addition, the cadastre can also identify errors in planning, to avoid investment mistakes.
(5) decision-making capabilities. The decision is referred to here refers to countries to develop land policies, guidelines, land use system reform of decision-making, but also the state's economic development, environmental protection, the decision-making aspects of human existence as well as personal or business investment decisions. cadastral provided by the multi-element, multi-level, multi-temporal state of the natural condition of land resources and socio-economic status are the countries to prepare national plans to develop the fundamental basis for the planning, organizing industrial and agricultural production and to the building.
(6) management functions. Cadastre is the adjustment of land relations, rational organization of the fundamental basis of land use. Land use situation and its location information and business circles, is to carry out land distribution, redistribution, and levy an important basis for allocation of land to work. Because of the existence of cadastral geographic features and decision-making capabilities, public security, fire protection, postal services, water and soil conservation and the land and fixtures as the research object of scientific research and management departments to make full use of cadastral information for their work service.
3. Cadastral categories
With the use of the scope of cadastral continuing expansion of its content has become increasingly enriched categories of classification are also more reasonable. Cadastre according to their stage of development, object, purpose and content of the different categories can be divided into different systems.
(1) The use of cadastral division of tax revenue can be divided into cadastral cadastral, property rights, and multi-purpose cadastral cadastre
In a certain mode of social production, cadastral objects with a specific purpose, role and content, but it is not immutable. Cadastral development process, is also the ever-expanding use of cadastral process.
Tax is only cadastral cadastral tax service, namely, taxation of services specifically for the land cadastre. Therefore, the main contents of cadastral taxes the taxpayer's name, address, and the taxpayer's land area and land class and so on. The establishment of cadastral tax the work required primarily by measuring the land area and according to soil quality, land of output and income and other factors to evaluate the land level.
Also known as the law of property rights cadastral cadastral. With the economic development and social structure of complicated land transactions become more frequent and more open, which led not only to be used for cadastral tax, but also for the protection of property rights. Property cadastre is the countries to safeguard the land tenure system, encourage land transactions, to prevent land speculation, the protection of land rights and interests of buyers and sellers to establish land inventory. Where the registered land, their property rights proved to have legal effect. Property Cadastre of the most important task is to protect the land owners, the use of the legitimate rights and interests and to prevent land speculation. To this end, property rights must be to reflect the number of cadastral boundaries and boundary points to the exact location and exact area of land as the main content.
Multi-purpose cadastre, also known as a modern cadastre, cadastral and property rights of taxation further development of cadastral, which aims not only for property taxation, or protection services, more importantly for the land use, conservation and scientific management of land to provide basic information.'s Economy the rapid development and intensification of the social structure of complex applications for cadastral provided the impetus for the expansion, while the scientific and technological development, for the cadastre deepening and expansion of the content provided strong technical support, so that tax break cadastral cadastral cadastral and property rights limitations, with multi-functions, as the same time, the establishment, maintenance and management of cadastral means are also gradually being information technology, modern measurement techniques and computer technology replaced.
(2) according to the characteristics and tasks of cadastral division can be divided into the initial cadastral cadastral cadastral and daily
The so-called initial cadastre is defined as a certain period of time, all the land within their administrative jurisdiction to conduct a comprehensive investigation, the establishment of new land inventory (not referring to the history of the first books). Everyday cadastre is aimed at the land and its subsidiary ownership of the materials, location, quantity, quality and utilization of the changes to the initial cadastral as the basis for amendments, additions and update cadastral. the initial and ongoing cadastral cadastral is inseparable from a complete system. The initial cadastre is the basis for Daily cadastre is the initial cadastral additions, amendments and updates. If there is only the initial but not routine cadastral cadastral, cadastre will gradually obsolete, into historical data, the lack of current potential of, lost its value. Conversely, if there is no initial cadastral daily there is no basis for cadastral and the foundation.
(3) according to the different characteristics of urban and rural land division can be divided into cadastral cadastral Cadastral and rural areas
Urban land and rural land use have different characteristics and features of the right. Cadastral the object of urban construction land in cities and towns, as well as independent cities and towns outside the industrial and mining enterprises, railway, transportation and other land use. Cadastral targeted rural urban suburban and rural collectively owned land, state-owned land used by state farms and rural settlements sites. As urban land utilization, a high degree of intensification, building (structure) building materials-intensive, high land value, location and traffic conditions, formed by differential income is very poor, Urban Cadastral plan, a few usually have the characteristics of large-scale and high precision, while the rural cadastral and vice versa. in the contents of cadastral, land ownership processing, cadastral techniques and methods and their results collation, preparation and so on, Cadastral higher than those in rural cadastral, more complex requirements. In practice, due to the rural residential land (villages) and towns there are many of the same places, the residents of the rural cadastral Cadastral partial similarity of requirements can be established and collectively referred to as cities and towns the village cadastre. As the technology advances and socio-economic development will gradually establish an integrated urban and rural cadastral.
2, cadastral
1. The definition of cadastral survey
Cadastral Survey for the acquisition and expression of cadastral survey and mapping work carried out by the information. The basic content is to determine the ownership of the land and its attachments, location, quantity, quality and utilization of medical conditions. The specific contents are as follows:
(1) Cadastral Control Survey, measuring the basic control points and cadastral cadastral map root control points;
(2), boundary surveys, determination of boundaries of administrative divisions and land ownership boundaries of the boundary point coordinates;
(3) The cadastral maps mapping, surveying and mapping framing cadastral maps, land-use maps, real estate maps, were maps, etc.;
(4) The area of measurement, calculation, and were in the area of land to carry out area of adjustment and statistics;
(5) for the dynamic monitoring of land information to carry out changes to cadastral surveying, cadastral map of the repair, including measurement, weight measurement and cadastral books of the revision to ensure that the results of cadastral information on potential and accuracy of the current;
(6) According to land management, development and planning requirements to carry out the cadastral survey work.
With other measurements, like cadastral measurement also follows the general principle that the first and control over their broken department, from senior to junior, from the whole to the local principle.
2. Cadastral survey of the characteristics of
Cadastral mapping and professional surveyors and infrastructure are clearly different from their essentially different from the performance of the bills relating to the rights of the land and its attachments to the measurement can be regarded as cadastral surveying, concrete expression of the following:
(1) The cadastral survey is a foundation of the survey and mapping work with government action is the Government's exercise of the functions of land administration has a legal significance of the acts of administrative techniques. In foreign countries, cadastral mapping known as the official. In our country, previous cadastral survey ordered by the court or government carried out.
(2) The cadastral survey for land management provides accurate and reliable geographic reference system. By the cadastral cadastral history and the history we can see, the cadastral surveying and mapping technology has been one of technology, basic technology, cadastral technology not only for the land taxes and protection of property rights to provide accurate, reliable and acceptable data that can be legal facts, but with modern advanced technology for cadastral surveying and mapping provides a legally acceptable to the public meaning of the geographical reference system.
(3) The cadastral survey evidence has the legal characteristics of inquisition. Both the initial registration of property rights, or to change the registration or his right is registered in the land rights of the review and confirmation, disposition process of cadastral survey work is done by the use of measurement means the right of ownership made an application for the main site investigation, verification, for the land rights of the legal claim to provide accurate and reliable property proof.
(4) The technical standards for cadastral survey of land must be consistent with the requirements of the law. Cadastral technical standards point of view it is necessary to meet the measurement, but also reflects the requirements of the law of the land, its expression not only of man and surface features, topography and features in the relationship between the and the link between landscape, but also at the same time to reflect and regulate the people, between people and society in order to land ownership and use as the core relationships.
(5) the cadastral surveying work have a very strong potential of the current. Due to social development and economic activities, land use and rights to make frequent changes in the land management requirements of cadastral information have a very strong nature of the current trend, it must be timely cadastral survey results updated, so cadastral survey and mapping work compared to working in a more general basis for the recurrent side, and can not be artificially fixed update cycle can only be timely and accurately reflect the actual changes. cadastral survey has always been throughout the establishment, change or terminate land use and the dynamics of changing power relations and the maintenance of cadastral information is now one of the potential of the main technical.
(6) The techniques and methods of cadastral mapping of the contemporary techniques and methods of application integration. Cadastral survey technology is the common measurement, digital measurement, photogrammetry and remote sensing, area measurement, peace and poor error theory, geodesy, space positioning technology and other technical integrated applications. According to land management and real estate management of graphics, data, and lists the complex requirements of combination of different mapping techniques and methods.
(7) engaging in cadastral survey of the technical staff should have extensive knowledge of land management. Engaged in cadastral survey of the technical staff, with a vast knowledge of surveying and mapping, but also with a real estate legal knowledge and cadastre management of knowledge. Cadastral work from organization to implementation are very strict, it requires the cadastral surveying and mapping technicians and investigators in close coordination and detailed job seriously.
Third, cadastral survey
Before carrying out cadastral survey must be carried out cadastral survey, the survey the land and its attachments to the social, economic and legal aspects of information, in the field to confirm the ownership of land and its attachments and the use of boundary conditions, and fill out the cadastral survey for the land and its attachments to the precise location, size estimation, and other cadastral survey to provide basic information.
(A) the meaning of cadastral surveys
Cadastral survey is in accordance with state law, the ownership of the land and its attachments, quantity, quality and utilization of the basic status of the investigation conducted. It is not only a policy, legal and social basis for a strong work, is a set of scientific nature, practicality, uniformity, strict nature in one of the technical work.
According to the survey time and the task is different from the initial cadastral survey can be divided into the cadastral survey and cadastral survey changes. The initial cadastral survey refers to all land within the survey area in the initial land registration cadastral survey conducted before. The initial cadastral survey generally in the absence of cadastral data or cadastral data more scattered, severe lack of old-fashioned investigative work carried out under conditions, but not that for the first time in the history of cadastral survey. This work involves administration of justice, taxation, finance, planning, real estate, etc. large scale, scope and content of complex, costly. Change means a cadastral survey was conducted in order to maintain the current trend cadastre and cadastral information to grasp the dynamic changes in the regular conduct of cadastral surveys is in the initial on the basis of cadastral is that the cadastral management, regular work.
Different functions according to survey areas, cadastral survey can be divided into the rural cadastral surveys and Cadastral Survey. Now cadastral surveys in rural areas are mainly the land-use survey, land quality survey, land ownership investigation. "Protocols Land Use Survey," provides for state (at all levels of administrative division boundaries) and land ownership community (village, agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fisheries sector, enterprises and institutions other than the residents of the land ownership and use community) of the survey content and methods. Cadastral survey was refers to towns and villages within the cadastral survey, the main pairs of cities, towns, villages, within the scope of land ownership, location, quantity, quality and utilization of such an investigation. the rational use of urban land for urban and national economic development plays an important role. Since 1985, in order to strengthen the urban land management, with the national introduction of state-owned urban land use fee (tax), according to "Cadastral Survey of order," the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, cities and towns to actively carry out an initial cadastral surveys. cadastral surveys in rural areas and Cadastral Survey to converge with each other, both can not repeat can not miss. cadastral survey to investigate the contents of the survey area should be covered every piece of land, including land ownership survey and investigation of real estate ownership is the core.
(B) The purpose of cadastral survey
With the population growth and economic development, the parties face the increasing demand for land. However, the area of land is limited, the location is fixed, the natural supply of a lack of flexibility, value and the rational use of every inch of land is the fundamental purpose of land management. In order to improve land management, land must master the basic information: First, the land ownership status and its spatial distribution; The second is the amount of land and its various departments in the national economy, the distribution of land ownership between the conditions; three land the quality and usage. must be based on scientific cadastral systems, and undertake cadastral surveys to collect the basic information. The fundamental purpose of maintaining the land system, protection of land ownership, land policy and the rational use of land to provide basic information.
(C) the contents of the cadastral survey
Since the establishment of cadastral purposes and cadastral systems are different, the contents of cadastral surveys are also different.
1. Cadastral survey the contents of the tax
The purpose of tax-based fiscal cadastral survey, land survey only the following two questions: First, land rights, namely, that taxpayers, including the name or unit name, address, etc.; 2 is to calculate taxes based on the need to pay taxes land type, land area and land class and so on.
2. Cadastral survey the contents of the property
Property rights protection of property rights for the purpose of cadastral, in addition to tax services, but also protection of land owners and users of the legitimate rights and interests of the state land management and supervision to provide supporting documentation. Therefore, the cadastral survey of land property rights are investigated as the core content, while investigating land-use conditions and other factors.
3. Multi-purpose cadastral survey the contents of the
Compared with the Property Cadastre, multi-purpose cadastre, thus enriching. Its specific contents are as follows:
(1) The ownership of the land and its attachments, including the right person status, power source, the nature of the rights, rights restrictions;
(2) the location of the land and its attachments, including location, ownership boundary, etc.;
(3) the amount of land and its attachments, including land area, building area, with a total construction area of construction.
(4) the quality of the land and its attachments, including land levels, the base land, buildings, structures and number of storeys, a variety of real estate prices.
(5) the utilization of land and its attachments, including land type, floor area ratio, building density, building spacing, various categories of area ratio.
In addition, normally accompanied by elevation, topography and other icons of information.
(D) the principles of cadastral survey
In order to ensure the smooth operations of cadastral management, to avoid undue conflict, cadastral survey should follow the following principles:
(1) comply with the national land, real estate and urban planning and other relevant legal principles.
(2) the principle of seeking truth from facts. Investigation, in accordance with the law under the premise of combining with the status quo, give full consideration to historical background.
(3) comply with the principles of Cadastral Management. With the scientific basis of cadastral systems to ensure that the current trend of cadastre and systematic, reliability and accuracy, generality and completeness.
(4) comply with the principles of multi-purpose.
- The Block (Parcel) for units of cadastral surveys;
- Before the survey should collect information on mapping, land administration, real estate Chanquanchanji, planning, building construction and other reported information;
- Should be the whole space covered by the survey methodology to investigate the region every land, every one were in the case must be thoroughly investigated, including roads, bridges, rivers, water, mountains, farmland, etc.;
- Cadastral survey results to do graphics, data, book-one correspondence between the clear relationship.
(E) the working procedures of cadastral surveys
1. Cadastral survey of the work content
The initial comparative cadastral survey system technology system is relatively static. Everyday cadastral surveys the main technical methods and the initial cadastral survey of the technical approach is the same, but more scattered, mainly from the daily work and land cadastre the management of daily operations, such as change of ownership, registration, land administration, land acquisition, land monitoring, are dynamic.
Regardless of the initial or routine, the contents of cadastral survey work includes the investigation of land ownership, land use status of the investigation, land grade survey, property surveys.
2. Cadastral survey procedures
Cadastral survey is a comprehensive systems engineering, policy, legal and technical are strong, heavy workload, a high degree of difficulty must be fully prepared, well-planned, well-organized basis.
(1) preparations. Including the development of cadastral survey of the organization programs and technical programs, organizational preparation, publicity, survey pilot and technical training, lists, apparatus, tools, preparation, data collection and so on.
(2), field investigation, surveying. For the location of the land, boundary, uses such as field surveys, Kan Zhang.
(3) work within the industry. Outside the industry, on the basis of the work, organize cadastral survey information.
(4) The inspection and acceptance. Inspection and acceptance staff to implement self-test operation, the operating group of mutual inspection, special inspection operations team, the higher acceptance of multi-level department in charge of inspection and acceptance system.
Section II Cadastre and cadastral survey of the history of
1, cadastral Development Summary
Cadastre is the land use and management of the product, its emergence and development of social progress and development of production, scientific and technological level continuously improve results. The emergence of the national cadastral generated the first place. In primitive societies, land in the "anything and everything" state , it is a common labor, according to the internal rules of the clan to share work product, without having to know the land situation and the man-land relationship. With the development of social productive forces, the emergence of the working people above the top of the machine - the country. At this time, as the maintenance of cadastral a tool for the operation of the state apparatus that has emerged. It is in the maintenance of the land system to protect the state's tax has played an important role.
In the West, the word "cadastre" the source was not identified, may be derived from the Greek word "Katatikon" (books or business books), may also be derived from the Latin word was "Capitastrum" (tax registration). The meaning of a modern cadastral of land records are known to have existed for thousands of years. The oldest known land records is a 4000 BC to Chaladie table. China, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, ancient Rome and other ancient civilizations there are some old cadastral records. at the time social background, the cadastre is a land of taxation targeted at the books, records relating to the ownership of the land area and land class and so on. In this tax books, only the land owners or users involved in I do not involve the four relations, without a basic record of the building. The measurement techniques used is also very simple, non-graphic. land quality evaluation was based primarily on crop yields. the use of taxation to the tax imposed by the books, primarily as a the maintenance of social development funds, which is the industrialization of the country before the most important sources of revenue. This is what we call revenue cadastral.
Until the 18th century, profound changes have taken place in the social structure, land use is more diversified, there has been agricultural, industrial, residential and other land use types. And measurement technology development, so that the Lord has to determine ownership of land can be precisely positioned, more accurate calculation of the area, and can be used to describe the graphical cadastral content. In other words, measurement technology to provide an accurate cadastral geo-referenced system, eventually leading to the collection of taxes has been divided based on land (including buildings ) payable taxes, and gradually established a more mature tax system. At this time not only the content of cadastral land ownership, location, quantity and use of categories, also includes its attachments (ie, buildings and structures) in the right is, location, quantity and use of categories.
The 19th century, Europe's economic structure has undergone major changes in changes in the emergence of land in urban centers of tension and prosperous condition of land, resulting in better protection of the law of land ownership and use requirements. Cadastre as a land acquisition taxes and fees foundation, as it can provide a complete and accurate geographic reference system (this is determined by precise measurement system brought about), and thus to assume in order to achieve the registers of title of property rights protection mandate, cadastral and therefore the protection of property rights has become Tools, unambiguous property rights generated from cadastral (tax one of its aims). According to documentation, in the Napoleonic era, it is because the establishment of cadastre, it reduced the real estate ownership and use rights on the border dispute.
For these reasons, Western countries covering the entire country has established a range of national cadastral, cadastral industry has played a decisive role. Into the 20th century, due to factors such as population growth and industrialization, social structures become more complex, governments at all levels and the sector needs more and more information to manage the intense changes in society, while recognizing that the cadastre is the work of its management important source of information.
On the technical side, the land quality evaluation of theories, techniques and methods are maturing, and the land quality assessment data is included in the cadastre. Scientific and technological development for the measurement technology provides a more accurate and reliable means of cadastral map of the geometric accuracy and cadastral boundary data accuracy are increasing. cadastral registration books of the nature of the real property, size, location and other relevant information is also richer. cadastre to meet the land tax and property rights protection, while further enrich its content. for the country interests and the public interest of the various types of road planning and design, as well as government decision-making more and more dependent on the existing cadastral data. cadastral information is being continuously applied to all kinds of planning and design, real estate management, land management, land development, legal protection, property tax and many other aspects, so that the content of cadastral richer, and thus extends the traditional role of the cadastre and purposes, forming what we call the multi-purpose cadastre, in all kinds of books are now also known as a modern cadastre.
2, cadastral Development Summary
Mapping technologies used to produce the beginning of one of the main application for land demarcation and measurement Tian Mu area. About 30 century BC in ancient Egypt and the Royal registration tax records, there is a part of the basis of land measurement and, in some were also found in ancient tomb of the land surveyor is working picture. BC in the 21st century, when the Nile floods once in order to detect rope as a tool for measuring fields were measured and the restoration of community. According to "Summary of Chinese History and business circles," reads: "China The profession, the right to Yu Yu Gong. "implementation of well-field system from the Shang and Zhou dynasties began a land border delineation and demarcation of the domain. from the Shang Dynasty unearthed in Oracle can be seen in cultivated land had been divided was" well "shape of the terraces, this has been used for "rules", "Moment," "bow" and other measurement tools, land surveying, cadastral already had a prototype technologies and methods.
AD 11 centuries ago, no matter how the system of land management change or a different, cadastral simple techniques, methods and tools are measurement of land area by the community and a powerful tool.
In 1086, a well-known land records - Thomas on behalf of (The Doomsday Book) founded in England was completed largely covering the whole of England cadastral surveys, it is regrettable that this record is not marked on the map.
1387, China's Ming Dynasty, to carry out cadastral surveying, the preparation of fish-scale atlas in order to field-based, painted with terraces for graphics, a semicolon Xiang column size, topography, soil, and the owners name, as a basis for levying land tax. To the 1393 completion of the national cadastral survey and make land registration, land nationwide totaled 8,507,523 Qing.
In 1628, Sweden for tax purposes on the land of the measurement and evaluation, including the number of acres and production capacity and map.
In 1807, France established the land tax levied cadastral, cadastral survey carried out; in 1808, Napoleon I decree promulgation of national land. This work laid the most striking is the triangular control net, as the basis for cadastral and using a uniform map projection, at 1:2500 or 1:1250 scale cadastral map out every neighborhood in the block number, so that in this country in all the land is done only division. This time, France has established a relatively complete cadastral theories, technologies and methods. Today, many countries still using the Napoleonic era cadastral formed thoughts and theories and technologies.
19th century and the mid-20th century former cadastral theory and technology continues to develop a sound stage of .20 century, owing to the constant change and development, rapid population growth and the construction of the rapid development of urgently requires an effective and timely settlement of land resources use and protection of such problems as a result of the cadastral survey put forward higher requirements, governments are generally attach importance to this work. and computer technology, electro-optical distance, aerial photography and remote sensing technology, GPS positioning technology, and satellite monitoring rapid technological development, but also makes the cadastral theory and technology is evolving, can appear in the process of social development issues and make timely resolution. Now, developed countries have gradually carried out by the government regulation in order to land-based cadastral or land information system-building.
Third, China's cadastre and the development of cadastral survey
China is an ancient civilization, cadastral, cadastral surveys and cadastral management in China has a long history. In agricultural production, in order to solve the sub-fields and tax issues, not only to carry out land surveying, but also established a land-targeted tax books.
Yan Shigu for "Han Emperor Wu Ji" and "Ji lai's horse, horse supplement car" and "nationality" Note to "nationals, the total recorded and just take the naturalization." Cadastre concept began taking shape in China Xia, that is, 21 ~ 16 century BC.
Shang and Zhou era, the establishment of a "91 and to help" land management system, namely, "eight are private mu, with the raising of public acres," the well-field system and, accordingly, carried out a simple land surveying work, which can be regarded as the prototype of cadastral survey in China. According to "Han Food and Money" in accounts of "Six Feet of steps hundred paces for the mu, 100 mu for the fu-fu for the three houses, housing for the three wells, wells square mile, is a nine-fu; a total of eight, all by the private Tian mu, public fields ten mu, is 880 acres, more than 20 acres that the farmhouse. "It's a more detailed description of the land management system and then the amount of measured by the location and size of community approach.
By the mid Spring and Autumn Period (about BC 770 ~ 476 years), Lu Chu, Zheng three countries have conducted a land tax and land survey. For example, in 548 BC, the Chu first according to the nature of the land, topography, location, purpose, etc. division of land type, and then for each category of land to be provided by the soldiers, vehicles, horses, a number of shield, and finally the results of the systematic land survey records, made of books.
The historical development of cadastral and social change in the relations of production are closely linked. With the development of social productive forces and social relations of production are constantly evolving and, accordingly, the contents of cadastral also change, Mencius once said: "When a man must be since the implementation of benevolent industry itself, through the sector is not correct, well to the uneven, Gu-lu injustice; the actual occurrence of a tyrant officials and their circles, must diffuse. circles, both positive and sub-Tian Lu system may sit may be also. "Here, decent profession is cadastral work, the important content, so the cadastre in the regulation of the relations of production plays an important role. 216 BC, "House Genki books," reads: "Thirty-one years before the emperor, so that Qianshou from real fields", and even if the people themselves to declare their land area to register.
How to build compatible with private ownership of land cadastral system has become the focus of the work of ancient feudal dynasty. Tende, Jian-Zhong Song-year period, YANG Yan implementation of the "two tax", and large-scale land survey, Zheng Qiao, "Annals," reads: "to Jianzhong early contingent demote and promote so, then by the number of settlers Tada had to take a boundless expanse of more than a hundred. "